Sometimes, we use both coordination (joining parts with words like and or but) and subordination (using dependent clauses) in a single sentence. This can lead to a very complicated structure.

All sentences, regardless of complexity, fall into the categories of complex or compound-complex sentences.

Related Reading: Understanding Subject Modifiers

Complications in Complex Sentences

A complex sentence has one main (independent) clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause. Sometimes, these subordinate clauses can be compound or complex themselves.

Example 1

♦ They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the gold which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they were unacquainted. — Macaulay

Main clause: They preferred the silver to the gold.
Subordinate clauses:
An adjective clause modifying silver: with which they were familiar, and which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand.
Another adjective clause modifying gold: which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they were unacquainted.

Each of these adjective clauses is compound because it has two parts joined by and.

Example 2

♦ All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread of the world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland, who had humbled Holland and Spain.—Macaulay

Main clause: All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet.
Subordinate clauses:
An adjective clause: where hung the rotting remains of a prince…
This is an adjective clause modifying gibbet.
Inside this clause, there is a compound adjective clause (modifying prince) made up of four who clauses:

• who had made England the dread of the world
• who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire
• who had conquered Scotland and Ireland
• who had humbled Holland and Spain

Putting these clauses together creates a long, but still complex, sentence.

Related Reading: How to Use Conditional Sentences

Example 3

♦ As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage in Æschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller.—Fielding

Main clause: We shall leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams.
Subordinate clauses:
Adverbial clause: As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn
Adjective clause: who… fell into a contemplation on a passage in Æschylus

Within this adjective clause, there is another adjective clause: which entertained him for three miles together… (modifying passage)

Example 4

♦ As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling about my clearing; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and threes athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind my house, gives a voice to the air; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish; a mink steals out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore; the sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and thither; and for the last half hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and then reviving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to the country.—Thoreau

Main clause: A compound main clause made up of six separate parts:

• hawks are circling about my clearing
• the tantivy of wild pigeons… gives a voice to the air
• a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface…
• a mink steals out of the marsh…
• the sedge is bending…
• I have heard the rattle of railroad cars…

Subordinate clause: As I sit by my window this summer afternoon (an adverbial clause) modifies the entire compound main clause.

Example 5

♦ That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly, that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs; that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in the country; that some of them, with all their magnificence, could not catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the Burgundy, were still low men,—these were things which excited, both in the class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they attempted to force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt.—Macaulay

The sentence starts with a long compound noun clause: it has nine parts, each introduced by that:

• that they had sprung from obscurity
• that they had acquired great wealth
• that they exhibited it insolently
• that they spent it extravagantly
• that they raised the price of everything…
• that their liveries outshone those of dukes
• that their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor
• that the examples of their large and ill-governed households corrupted…
• that some of them… were still low men

These nine clauses together form the subject of the main verb were, but the pronoun these stands in as the subject, referring to them all at once.

Main clause: These were things.
Subordinate adjective clause: which excited… contempt modifies things.

That adjective clause contains three more adjective clauses:

• from which they had sprung (modifies class)
• into which they attempted to force themselves (modifies that)
• which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt (modifies aversion)

Example 6

♦ That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately, any loose, random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman for whom I once entertained a very warm affection, and whose abilities I regard with the greatest admiration, I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings, trusting that I shall be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion I would still cultivate, that not levity, nor caprice, nor less defensible motives, but that very grave reasons, influence my judgment. —Burke

Main clause: I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection.
Subordinate clauses attach to this main clause:

• That I may avoid… admiration is a noun clause explaining why the speaker will do something.
• which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings is an adjective clause modifying matters of objection.
• trusting that I shall be able to demonstrate… is another subordinate idea connected to the main clause.
• whose good opinion I would still cultivate is an adjective clause modifying friends.
• that not levity… influence my judgment is another noun clause that depends on demonstrate.

Though long, the sentence is well organized.

Complications in Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence has at least two main (independent) clauses joined by coordination, and at least one of those main clauses is itself complex (it has one or more subordinate clauses).

Example 1

♦ While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his favor; but on the approach of the Scots, who were much superior in number, he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships and provisions lay. —Burnet

There are two main clauses joined by but, and each main clause has its own subordinate clauses:

First main clause: Cromwell, with his army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his favor.
Subordinate adverbial clause: While the king was treated at this rude rate
Subordinate adjective clause: that were making in his favor

Second main clause: he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships and provisions lay
Subordinate adjective clause: who were much superior in number (modifies Scots)
Subordinate adverbial clause: on the approach of the Scots
Adjective clause: where his ships and provisions lay (modifies Dunbar)

Example 2

♦ They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other; but when they perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the end, they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive. —Swift

There are two main clauses joined by but, and both are complex:
First main clause: They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other.
Subordinate noun clause as the object of thought: (that) my design was only to let the ships run adrift…
Second main clause: they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive.
Subordinate adverbial clause: when they perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the end

Example 3

♦ While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had a decided advantage over Pitt; but when dangerous times came, when Europe was convulsed with war, when Parliament was broken up into factions, when the public mind was violently excited, the favorite of the people rose to supreme power. —Macaulay

This sentence has two main clauses joined by but. Each main clause has its own series of subordinate clauses:

First main clause: Fox had a decided advantage over Pitt.
Subordinate adverbial clauses introduced by while:

• while things went on quietly
• while there was no opposition
• while everything was given by the favor…

Second main clause: the favorite of the people rose to supreme power.
Subordinate adverbial clauses introduced by when:

• when dangerous times came
• when Europe was convulsed with war
• when Parliament was broken up into factions
• when the public mind was violently excited

Example 4

♦ The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the notice of his employers; and before the Peace of Breda he had, at the request of Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war, of which nothing is now known, except that it had some vogue at the time, and that Charles, not a contemptible judge, pronounced it to be very well written. —Macaulay

Two main clauses joined by and:

• The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the notice of his employers. (simple)
• Before the Peace of Breda he had…published a pamphlet on the war… (complex)

In the second main clause:
Adjective clause: of which nothing is now known modifies pamphlet.
Inside this clause, we have a prepositional phrase with except, which introduces a compound noun clause (that it had some vogue at the time, and that Charles…pronounced it to be very well written).
Pronounced it to be very well written is an infinitive clause serving as the object of pronounced.

In this example, there are four independent clauses, all equally important and joined by punctuation or conjunctions.

Related Reading: Understanding Sentences, Phrases, and Clauses

Key Takeaways

1. Identify the Main Clause First: Start by finding the main idea or action in your sentence. Extra clauses and phrases help maintain focus in your writing.
2. Use Subordinate Clauses Wisely: Subordinate clauses add extra details, but too many can confuse readers. Pick only the clauses you need to get your point across.
3. Watch Your Punctuation: Commas, semicolons, and dashes help organize long sentences. Use them to show where clauses begin and end.
4. Break Up Long Sentences: If a sentence becomes too unwieldy, split it into two (or more) shorter sentences.
5. Be Consistent: Stick with one clear tense or viewpoint if possible. Jumping around can add confusion to an already complex sentence.

6. Use Linking Words Carefully: Words like although, because, unless, since, and that signal important relationships between ideas. Make sure each linking word is necessary and placed correctly.
7. Avoid Repetitive Structures: Adding multiple “who” or “that” clauses in the same sentence can be overwhelming. Try varying your structure or condense extra details.
8. Focus on Flow: Even in a long sentence, ideas should build smoothly. If adding a new clause feels forced, consider rephrasing or placing it in a separate sentence.
9. Proofread Thoroughly: Complex sentences often hide small mistakes in word choice or grammar. Double-check each clause to ensure your meaning is clear and correct.
10. Read Aloud to Check Clarity: Reading your sentence out loud helps you spot awkward phrasing or areas where readers might get lost.

Last Words on Special Complications

Even though these sentences are complex and sometimes very long, they all follow clear rules. They are either complex sentences with multiple subordinate clauses, or compound-complex sentences with two or more main clauses, each possibly having its own subordinate clauses.

Happy writing!

Linda

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